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BALANCE OF MATERIALS USED IN OIL FIELDS. PART I

CLASS 03

MATERIAL BALANCE FOR OIL FIELDS

Definition of Terms

Before introducing the concept of material balance is important to define the basic terms are handled in the calculations.

N [MMstb]: refers to the volume of oil plus gas in solution, which was originally located at the site in standard conditions.

m (dimensionless): relationship between the volume of oil and gas layer over the gas dissolved in it. Is considered constant.

Np [MMstb] cumulative oil production in standard conditions.

Rp [CPN / BN]: gas ratio - Cumulative oil production in standard conditions.

Nβoi [MMBY]: refers to the volume of oil more gas in solution, which was originally located in the reservoir in reservoir conditions.

mNβoi [MMBY]: volume of free gas in the gas layer initially at reservoir conditions.

NRsiβoi [MMBY]: volume of gas dissolved in oil at reservoir conditions.

G [MMPCN]: total volume of gas found at the site originally, in standard conditions.

Each previously studied mechanism of production, contributes to the depletion of the reservoir.

Remember:

emptying = expansion of oil plus gas expansion solution + gas + gas cap expansion of water volume reduction connotes + porous + influx of water from the aquifer

This relationship is based on the principle known as the Law of conservation of matter by Lomonosov (1745) and Lavoisier (1789) which states that a chemical reaction the mass consumed by the reactants equals the mass of the products, so the mass is always conserved.

The left side of this expression is known as production and can be calculated as

Production

Np ( βo + (Rp - Rs) βg) + Wp βw

The right side corresponds to the contribution of each mechanism can be calculated numerically as: Expansion

oil


solution gas expansion

Expansion oil + gas in solution

N [( βo + βg (Rsi - Rs)) - βoi]
Expansion

gas layer

connotes water expansion and pore volume reduction

Influence of water

We

MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION

The material balance is based mainly on the Law of Conservation of Mass and takes two important considerations.

1. The pressure is uniform throughout the reservoir.
2. The fluids are in thermodynamic equilibrium.

This method is used to determine the volume of oil originally in the reservoir, calculate and predict water inflow reservoir pressure. To apply you need to know the production history of the site and PVT data can be obtained using the methods already explained.

If we combine all the above terms, we find the general term deposits material balance.

Obviously, depending on the state of the reservoir properties, we can particularize the equation and find simplified expressions to suit our convenience.

For sites with a pressure is above the bubble pressure, any gas dissolved in oil (no expansion of the gas in solution or expansion of the gas cap), if we neglect the impact connoting water, and also not recorded surface water production, the material balance is as follows:

After the reservoir pressure reaches the bubble, the dissolved gas begins to be released and the compaction of pore volume and water connotes become negligible, will be two scenarios, the first corresponds to sites with no gas cap, in which we obtain the following equation:

If we have a layer of gas for same site:

METHOD STRAIGHT

is not always possible to keep track of all the requirements of the material balance equation. Because of this, some authors have worked with the equation and have managed to present some mathematical relations to find the same results in a simpler way.

Authors such as Van Everdingen (1953) and Havlena and Odeh (1963) were based on the grouping of variables, depending on others and in the plotting of these to subsequently linearize the parameters and more easily find the value of N, m G.

is important to identify the type of site with which it is working, and then properly grouping variables and use the linearization method.

In general, the line representing this method is as follows:


where


Classification of sites and related equations

Reservoir Volumetric + solution gas drive + compaction of pore volume

empuej Reservoir Volumetric gas + solution + gas layer

Push water + gas + solution pore volume compaction

Push gas water + solution + gas layer

water + gas Push solution

PRODUCTION INDEX

Other authors who have worked on the basis the material balance equation to determine the influence of each mechanism of production and energy each brings, so it is possible to determine which mechanism is more efficient at each site. Pirson

considered the most impotant mechanism contributing to the energy reservoir to produce hydrocarbons are:

1. Mechanism of depletion or gas in solution.
2. Drive mechanism of gas or gas cap expansion.
3. Water drive mechanism.

Using the terms defined in the beginning, the production rate of each mechanism can be calculated as:

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Mathematics in the kitchen

In the kitchen you can find an endless source of mathematical problems where children can learn and use informally estimate, measure, proportion, fraction, decimals and geometry.
The objective of this activity is to lead students to question the conventional and unconventional measures and find equivalences between them.
This analysis is to consider and form mental references commonly used in weight and capacity. For example a cup of flour, a glass of water, a handful of salt, etc.
Two important concepts is the inaccuracy of measurement and estimation of the measure.


Activities:

Working in groups of 4 or 5 students.
Find recipes online and make a list of all units of measures contained in them. Sort
them in conventional and unconventional units.
Making a table and complete: (What unit is used and what actually is measured with it?)
Observe at home cooking when mom used to measure (measuring cup, scale, measuring cup, etc.)
Search recipes dulce de leche on the Internet.
bring the necessary elements for the development of Dulce de Leche. Work
conventional measures to establish the unconventional:

A cup of milk equals ........... ml. ...........
cups of milk are 1 l.
One cup of sugar equals g. .............
A spoonful of sugar equals g. ....... ........
form cups sugar 1 kg. Prepare

Dulce de Leche with the following Doña Petrona recipe: 3 liters milk

teaspoon vanilla
a pod or refined sugar 800 grams
teaspoon baking soda

Calculate the volume of the container where you place the ingredients for the manufacture of dulce de leche.

Complete the table with proportions. Milk

3 liters 6 liters 9 liters
Sugar 800 grams


Plot the table in a Cartesian axis system. Observe how they relate
ingredients, directly or reverse.
Perform the calculation of the cost of preparation. Canning
dulce de leche and watch the amount obtained.

Complete the table that relates a kilo of fresh milk produced, the volume of each container.


container volume 1000 cm 500 cm 250 cm 125 cm No. of packings 1



Observe how they relate to the magnitudes. Make
graphical representation. Prepare

container labels (product name, content, place of manufacture, production date, etc.) See page
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average price of fresh milk (look for the most expensive, the cheapest and average).
Compare the cost of fresh milk produced with the average price obtained. We make butter



Each group should bring a pot of 350 gr. cream.
Whisk continuously for butter. Remove
serum preparation and put a little salt. Place Preparedness
a mold shaped prism made similar to the package of butter. Weigh
drawn butter.
Work out the label with the following information: name of product, content, date and place of manufacture.
Calculate the cost of preparation.
Get the average price of butter in the market.

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make a pie chart with the data in Figure 3: Flow of national dairy chain. 2006. Observe
bar graph in Figure 5: commercial Tambos basin and determine in which province more drums and in which there is less.
Consider the data in Figure 6: Contribution of total milk production by dairy Top 5 provinces and make a bar graph. Observe
Figure 15: Trends in per capita milk consumption. Determine
whether increased or decreased milk consumption in the population. Report
some of the causes.
Calculate the percentage decrease in relation to the higher consumption to 2006
Construct a pictogram with annual production of sweet milk from 2000 to 2008 and another with annual production of butter from 2000 to 2008.

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Ferrovial-Cintra, when the fish eats the big guy's first interregional integration


A few weeks before the expected approval of the shareholders' meetings of Ferrovial and Cintra for their merger, the company begins to discover the path that will take the new listed.

Ferrovial was known in recent times as a service rather than a developer to use: Cespa , BAA , etc. The company's expansion in recent years was aimed at enhancing the diversification of income sources to cope better with the change of cycle that was predicted in the construction sector.

But this new approach shows that society does not forget his origins, or the sector which was the basis of their growth. With a new corporate image and a touch of the strategy, now based on the bid for concessions in which we must build concrete (greenfield) to Agroman task and the operating Cintra, is rejuvenated with a firm 57 years of life. Of course, while attracting new civil work for later exploitation will sell stakes in mature assets. These new works have to be complex projects, with a high component engineering and construction.

The benefits of this operation for the new company will be several: higher dimension and strength of balance and consequently will have better access to financial markets, will be more diversified and thus increase the variety of their sources of income, and increasing the free float is looking to stabilize the price or, is, lessen the potential for volatility.

Another of the most significant is that the whole process is a reverse merger in which the subsidiary (Cintra ) absorbed its parent company (Ferrovial ), by swapping four titles Cintra for each of Ferrovial.

the merge forward Ferrovial all its assets (valued at 8662.4 million) in bulk to its subsidiary, which will also assume the liabilities of its parent (3552.6 million) and take your name.

It therefore appears that once again is Ferrovial who marks the way forward for the rest of the big builders in the country. So far nearly all his decisions have proved successful (except the apparent indigestion after the absorption process of the British airport operator BAA ). Will it continue the good run? In the coming months we will check. Signed



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CLASS 02 MECHANISMS OF PRODUCTION

In there is an energy field associated with the fluid. That energy starts up certain mechanisms that drive the oil to move to the surface. These can be natural or artificial.

Among the natural mechanisms are: compressibility of the rock and fluids, release of gas in solution, gravitational segregation, push up gas cap, hydraulic thrust.

Mechanisms are artificial: the injection of fluids (water or gas).

compressibility of the rock:

As is known hydrocarbons found within the pores of the rocks that serve as a reservoir. By altering the reservoir pressure, for example, with the opening of a well, the fluids move from areas of higher pressure (reservoir) to areas of lower pressure (well), leaving more space in the pores. When the rock meets the space and less pressure then expands in the direction of least effort, which in this case is the pore space.

All rocks continue this behavior to a greater or lesser extent and are governed by the following equation:

compressibility values \u200b\u200bof the rocks are usually very low in the order of 10 ^{- 5} to 10 -6 . This type of mechanism is useful for pressures above the bubble point, since even the gas has not been released and the oil does not reach a significant value that ignore the rocks.

compressibility of the fluids

is governed by the same principle as that of the rocks. The fluids are expanded by the pressure change and move in the direction of least effort (high to low pressure).

For liquids the volume change can be calculated as follows:

V = Vi [1 + C (Pi - P)]

also from this equation and the proper handling can calculate the value of the factor of formation fluids, resulting

βi β = [1 + CΔP]

For

gas compressibility value can be obtained working properly compressibility equation of ideal gases.

As expected in standard conditions dz / z = 0 and Cg = 1 / P

gas release in solution: After

pressure in the reservoir reaches Pb and continues to decrease, the gas formed is beginning to expand and move to areas of lower pressure, carrying the oil that is in the range of drainage.

gravitational segregation:

There are three forces that guide the movement of fluids in the subsoil, the capillaries, the viscosity (associated with the pressure gradient) and gravity (associated with gravity). When drilling a well and bring the reservoir to a pressure differential such that Now P <> pg) and pushes its way to the oil well. Although usually attributed to deposits of high angle of dip, this is not the main reason. vertical direction of least resistance to gas flow and follow that path. Factors such as overload and the compressibility can contribute to the rock grains are arranged so that vertical permeability is greater than the horizontal. Pressure changes also contribute to this mechanism. Usually occurs in the drainage radius of the well but can cover more area if this increases. What happens is that the static pressure varies throughout the production and the radio was increased and therefore the phenomenon extends. It is usually a mechanism that provides greater recovery than the release of gas.

Push for gas layer:

At the top of the structure containing the oil we will have a layer of gas, the drilling and reservoir pressure change, the gas expands and pushes the oil into the well. Hydraulic Thrust

:

As gas and oil, water from the aquifer associated with the site also expands to alter the pressure and pushes the oil toward the well.

injection fluids:

Throughout the history of well production, the pressure difference between the surface and the site is declining, it may occur to the extent that the natural mechanisms of energy production does not have enough oil to flow into the well. Then you may inject fluid into the reservoir to maintain pressure or recover or assist the present mechanisms for fluids such as gas and water continue to carry crude oil to the pot.

If we consider the contribution of each mechanism of production and add them, we could get the value or amount of volume of oil to be produced because of them. The mean volume that will occur emptying a part of the site, so we can establish the following:

emptying = Compressibility Compressibility rock + fluid + gas release in solution + + Push gravitational segregation of gas layer + + Injection Hydraulic Press fluids.

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CLASS 01

PVT PARAMETERS

Basics: field, pressure, temperature, saturation, normal conditions, gradient pressure geothermal gradient, bubble pressure, pressure dew.

PVT tests aim to provide the data needed to perform a material balance in the reservoir.

For data analysis carried out tests with samples of the deposit. A simple way to understand how to perform the tests is to think of a soda bottle. At first, when the bottle is closed only observe one phase, liquid, any gas containing drink is dissolved in it. But what happens if we open the bottle? We note that begins to release gas and liquid can see small bubbles move surface and released, why is this happening? Well, when we opened the drink, which had a certain internal pressure higher than the environment, generate a pressure differential and fully gas saturated solution is released because the drink to that pressure and temperature and does not dissolve in it completely.

The same happens when you alter a site, usually with the drilling of a well. In the basement oil mixed with gas at a certain pressure solution depends on the pressure gradient, depth and a temperature which in turn depends on the geothermal gradient, opening a well, produce a pressure differential and compounds, from the lightest to the top, to the heaviest, migrate to areas of lower pressure (the well and then the surface).

To find oil with gas in solution is important to consider a fundamental property of the latter, the solubility, which is the ease with which the dissolved gas in crude oil and is closely linked to the pressure, temperature and composition of both the crude oil as gas.

Depending on the amount of dissolved gas and pressure to which we are, there may be different types of deposits. One classification is more general sites saturated and undersaturated reservoirs. Saturated fields are those where a small differential pressure I can feel the release of gas. Undersaturated fields are where the pressure to reduce observed no release of gas. It is very important to know the type of site we have, as this determines the mechanism of production will go.

Returning to the concept of PVT tests, that we show some parameters such as volumetric factors training, relations between the amount of gas and oil and gas properties of hydrocarbons. Then explain some of the most important

Value solution gas - oil (Rs)

is linked to the solubility of gas and can be understood as the ratio between the volume of a standard cubic foot (measured at standard conditions) in solution and the volume of a typical barrel of oil, at a certain temperature and pressure condition.

is represented as follows in a plot vs Rs. Pressure. From an initial pressure P> Pb, until the bubble pressure, the graph shows a steady linear behavior, because all the possible gas is dissolved in the liquid to reach Pb is released the first drop of gas and gradually releasing gas constant, ie the amount of dissolved gas decreases, so also Rs, and does so in a linear fashion. The arrows indicate the direction of increase of the parameters.

Rsi
When we talk about is the Rs for pressures greater than Pb and when we speak of Rs, Rs is a pressure less than Pb.

Factor Petroleum Training volume (βo)

This parameter relates the volume of oil with a corresponding volume of dissolved gas at reservoir conditions from the corresponding volume on the surface.


While we are in the phase region, the value of βo increases because oil is expanding as we reduce the pressure. When you reach the bubble pressure, this parameter decreases because the volume of oil now going steadily losing the dissolved gas is released.

Factor Gas Training volume (βg) Consider

βo the same concept but in this case is the relationship between the volume of gas in reservoir volume and its corresponding surface.

Whereas the conditions of the gas we have in the reservoir can be modeled by the equation of ideal gas (PV = ZηRT). In this way we will find values \u200b\u200bof P, VZ, η, R and T in terms of reservoir and surface conditions. If we solve the volume of the ideal gas equation and substitute into the equation βg, we obtain:


temperature in the reservoir and the compressibility factor Z are constant, the pressure varies reservoir, then the graph represents a function f (x) =, of course only takes the positive part of the graph, resulting as follows.

Volumetric Factor Total Training (βt)

is the volume occupied by a barrel of oil along with gas initially dissolved at any temperature and pressure condition.

Βt = Βo + βg (Rsi - Rs)

The graph shows how both before and after the βt bubble pressure increases, this is due to expansion gas and oil.

Value gas - oil production (Rp)

The concept is similar to Rs only this time, the relationship is between the cubic feet of gas produced and cubic feet of oil produced. The following chart shows the performance this value.

To obtain these parameters is necessary to submit samples of certain test site. Usually we take the sample and introduce in a cell that can change the volume and we'll apply pressure differentials on the value of pressure can be greater than or equal to Pb. There are two forms of testing, is releasing a flash and the other is the instant release.

flash in the release we started with a P> Pb and varying the pressure until we get to Patmos. The gas that is released will always be in contact with oil. The mass sample remains constant and measuring the volume consider the gas and oil together. In this test we obtain mainly Pb and βt.

Stages of flash release or Solvent Based

The release begins at P = differential Pb and in this case with each differential pressure, the gas that is released is removed from the sample so that we also Patm. With her we get Z, βt, βo, βg, γg, ρo and Rs.

Stages instant release



Liberation and Gas Field Surface

In reservoir to achieve a flash gas release is necessary that the gas saturation is lower than the critical for the gas does not move and always be in contact with the petroleo.Si gas saturation is above criticism, then moves and the release occurs Differentiation. are always surface in the presence of instantaneous release if the gas production flow lines and separators is in contact with oil.

Fluid Phase Diagram in Field

Such diagrams allow us to evaluate the composition of a system for classifying it under certain criteria you choose. In general, the phase diagram for a site is as follows:

The envelope is composed the bubble curve indicates the saturation line for liquid, mist line that shows the saturation line for gas. Within it can be seen Isocal lines representing the percentage of sample fluid and decrease from left to right. The critical point is the point where liquid and gas phase are in equilibrium. Cricondenbárico point represents the point of greatest pressure which are in equilibrium liquid and gas, cricondentherm point represents the maximum temperature that are in equilibrium liquid and gas. Finally we look at areas where we can find only oil, gas and only mixture of both.

According to this chart, depending on reservoir conditions and drilling can find the following types of sites:

dry gas Sites

I get only dry gas surface . The blue dotted lines represent the path from the reservoir surface. Whenever the initial temperature is higher than the temperature cricondentherm. The components of this gas are usually light, mainly methane. To qualify for this production fluid would have to undergo cryogenic processes.

Wet Gas Reservoirs

In this case we can obtain only dry gas or gas with a minimum of liquid. Following the trajectory always obtain 1-2 dry gas at the surface. Through the path 1-2'podemos obtain a minimum percentage of liquid in the pipe occurs. The temperature is higher than the temperature cricondertérmica compounds and consists of a little heavier than dry gas.

gas condensate

Production takes place at a temperature which is among the cricondentherm and criticism. The production path part in the gas-only area and into the enclosure. The reservoir temperature is between cricondentherm temperature and the critical point.

The retrograde condensation zone: if that occurs as we enter the part of the envelope which is among the critical point and the temperature cricondentherm, it will be condensed liquid, very good quality but I can not reach its saturation critical, so do not moving and we can not recover. For this reason we try to avoid getting into that area in two ways, or not allow to reach the spray pressure or reduce pressure. Usually we choose the first option injecting gas.

volatile oil fields

Formed by the lighter components, is in the area closest to the critical point and a lower pressure change can get faster to the saturation conditions . When I'm in the small pressure changes surround me produce large changes in quality. The reservoir temperature will to locate near the critical point, but slightly lower.

crude oil fields

In these fields we are far from the critical point. When we apply small pressure differentials quality does not vary much. They consist of heavier compounds. The main benefit of this oil find is that we used for PVT analysis because its composition does not vary significantly. The reservoir temperatures are much lower than the critical point.

The phase diagrams may change as we produce the oil because the pressure conditions vary and the important points as the critical point, temperature and pressure cricondentherm cricondenbárica change value. Then the bubble and dew pressures may also vary. An important point to note is that the deposits have always considered as a constant temperature, unless you have very large thicknesses where the geothermal gradient comes into play.

Period More Sensitive Pain

seems that the engines start to roar in the panorama of English savings banks. If some Catalan opened the tin box not long ago, and then followed the Castilian-Leonese, is now going to go a step further, because it seems that two boxes of different autonomous communities want to integrate their activities.

And we're talking about ... Caja Navarra (CAN) and Caja Canarias. As we say, this is something new, because until now all the agreements were between entities of the same community. Now with this announcement breaks the trend and maybe I can open the path to similar processes.

Without going any further, in Galicia until not long ago there was talk of possible interest Caja Madrid to merge with Caixa Galicia. It seems that at this time the shots were not going down that road, and instead of what is discussed is the merger of the two boxes Galician: Caixanova and Caixa Galicia.

But back to the case of CAN and Caja Canarias we find that as announced in a statement integrate and manage business risk policies in common. This means that a credit management purposes two entities behave in the same way.

The agreement, as explained by its protagonists, seeks to strengthen the solvency and liquidity of the institutions and improve their competitiveness and operational efficiency. The statement explains that the group will be constructed on a central financial services company owned by two boxes full, but remain "legal personality and governing bodies of each box and commitment to their territories." From this we can conclude that what is sought is clearly looking for synergies and cost savings.

Therefore, it seems that opens the range of possible mergers or interregional integration. Keep in mind that when it comes to boxes, it should be noted that in many cases the political factor is decisive, since in many cmunidades the control exercised by the regional governments on them is very strong, and so this factor can be critical when it sets or not a negotiation.

Regards, Javi R.

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